Linguistics and Language Essay Example for Free

linguistics and Langu mount up Es pleadIn this essay, I will explain as well as liken dickens theories of depression oral communication accomplishment, behaviorism and innatism. I will explore the differences between them in much(prenominal) categories as the role of the matcher, the role of the environs and as well as their strengths and weaknesses. I will therefore state and explain which one I find to a greater extent tenable with examples of relevant literature. Role of the scholar Behaviorism, credited to B. F. Skinner in the 1950s, states that the student knows nonhing to start with, he is an empty slate o1 to be taught. The bringer is passive and learns by positive-negative reinforcement, precisely repeating what he hears. Innatism, credited to Noam Chomsky in 1965, states that the learner is pumped-up(a) from birth for obstetrical delivery. The learner is equipped with a bloke, a address acquisition device. This device every last(predicate)ows the le arner to go come out of the closet the rules of his row, any diction. Role of the Environment Behaviorism states that the role of the environment is key and vital to the development process. The environment is the active agent while the learner is the passive agent. The environment produces the necessary run-in input for the learner.It is up to the environment to concede positive and negative reinforcement for the learner. Innatism states that the role of the environment is minimal because it only acts as the trigger for learning. It is excessively persuasion the environment is flawed and croupt be relied upon to alship piece of assal crumple perfect information. Therefore, it is up to the learner to find the rules of the languageo2 . Strengths There argon a few strengths to support the behaviorism hypothesis. It is easy to monitor the learners performance. This is how p atomic number 18nts (as teachers) usually teach their nestlingren, with nurturing which puts emph asis on the role of the environment.This speculation can in addition explain why learners take up the ability to memorize. On the other(a) hand, there atomic number 18 some(prenominal)(prenominal) strengths of the innatism surmise. A learner can non memorize all the possible different language and grammar combinations that he learns by means of the environment. The gadfly helps the learner to generalize rules and make his own productive use of the language. A tike will rule out using an irregular form because of over-generalizing, and he will create his own form of a playscript harmonize to the rules that he has internalized. And these rules dont necessarily conform to adult grammar rules which include many exceptions.By applying these internalized and generalized rules, a child is able to explicate a language at a luxuriant pace. o3 Weaknesses The Behaviorism theory only distinguishs for the performance of the learner, and not on his competence. The learner is pa ssive, so this theory does not focus on the learners mind and knowledge. It likewise does not explain why children grow a language so quickly even if they are exposed to different environments. In addition, this theory also doesnt offer an explanation of why children over-generalize rules such as the simple past puree of irregular verbs even though they hear irregular forms in the environment.There are also several weaknesses to the Innatism theory. one of the first weaknesses is that it demands the existence of the Language Acquisition Device (LAD), its existence is difficult to prove and is immeasurable. This theory also doesnt take into account different kinds of learners, just ideal learners with ideal grammar. The environment plays a minor role in this theory, so it doesnt take into account the fond aspect of the learner. My thinking Looking at the two of these theories, I find the Innatism theory the most tenable. In my own implement with my children and students, the learners do not always model my behavior.This usually occurs with irregular patterns, particularly past tense verbs. This is convertible to the wug test where a child will form a past tense of a verb that he has never heard in advance by applying the general grammar rules that he has learned. This behavior cannot be memorized and must be driven by an internal structure. some other reason to support this theory is that learners with impaired countersign subscribe to been able to learn the structure of language. It has also been turn up that American Sign Language which is taught to the deaf also has its own language structure. In addition, the creation of Creole languages supports the theory.As a Creole trails, grammar and structure are built in. The LAD would account for the formation of these languages as well as for creative uses of language by a learner. Conclusion In this essay I have explained two theories of language acquisition, behaviorism and innatism. In doing so, I have explained the different roles of the learner as well as the environment. I have also explored strengths and weaknesses of each theory and why I support the innatism theory over the behaviorism theoryo4 . o1Good one, I forgot this in my essay o2Do you think you should mention poverty of stimulus here? o3ording?Universal grammar is built off of two propositions, that all languages are governed by a fix up of universal principles, and that the mind is equipped with parameters which are set intuitively by the child according to the language input they invite. UG researchers have found a play of universal principles. One of the more than prominent principles is structure dependency. Structure dependency states that all sentences regardless of the language are built off of propositions that carry both a noun and a verb phrase in other members, every sentence in every language must have at least a subject and a verb (Chomsky, 1959).One parameter setting that is contained in the LAD is the stage setting. Some languages such as English are head first, other languages such as Japanese are head last. Various arguments have been used to support the existence of universal grammar. Chomsky (1959) has proposed the poverty of the stimulus argument, positing that the input children receive cannot account for what they produce, and therefore, children must have an unlettered facility. He argues that the input is marred in two ways first it contains a hodgepodge of performance slips, and secondly, it does not contain any negative evidence.How do children acquire language when they dont know what they cant say, or how do they learn to verbalize correctly when the input they here is at times in correct? They do so, according to Chomsky, through this innate capacity. Jackendoff (1994) offers another argument in support of universal grammar, the argument from expressive variety. Jackendoff argues that given that languages are recursive, there is simply no way of storin g all of the possible sentences one can create in ones mind. In other words, sentences dont come from habits, unless rather from creative expression.Universal grammar has had a lot of capital in language acquisition theory, although it has been critiqued on some fronts. Connectionists, particularly, N. Ellis (2006) has argued that language acquisition is not due to an innate faculty and the creative expression of humans, but equates it to a usage-based burn down where children learning piecemeal frequently reoccurring chunks of language. Another argument against the innate language faculty is that UG researchers have claimed that only humans have access to syntax, yet this has been found not to be true.Certain animals, such as the humpback whale and songbirds have been found to possess a recursive syntax, suggesting that syntax and language whitethorn have evolved from lower order primates. Whereas universal grammar perplexs with language from the inside, Sociocultural theory, an other prominent first language acquisition, posits language acquisition begins from the outside. Vygotsky, the founder of sociocultural theory, argues that language is a psychological tool, which children acquire and learn to misrepresent as they move with their environment and with more capable peers (Vygotsky, 1978).Children first learn language as they interact with their parents. Parents use caretaker manner of speaking, which makes it easier for the child to visualize and grasp a mince on the concepts of the language. As the child begins to understand and produce simple utterances, they are able to use the language to mediate their psychological functioning (Vygotsky, 1978). Vygotsky argues that children begin learning language by first learning single words, which are pure meaning. As they develop their language skills, and engage in social speech, single word sentences are augmented through incorporation of non-meaningful elements, such as functionwords, and the childs t houghts and words begin to develop more smell meanings. For instance, where the word cat for the 1 or two year old child could have served as an exemplar for all cats, by the time the child is nine, and having undergone a variety of experiences related to cat, they have imbibed the word with their own unique senses. Thus syntax and word senses expand, the more a child learns. Now, whereas social speech began from one and developed into many, inner speech, the speech that goes on inside of our heads becomes more and more truncated.Vygotsky argues, contrary to Piaget, that egocentric speech does not disappear rather it becomes internalized as inner speech. And this inner speech is something that could not be understood by anybody but the person who is thinking it. Vygotsky suggests that just as people who have know each other for many years, and who have had a large amount of experiences together exhibit language pitchencies of inadequateened syntax because of their historical shar ed experience, a persons inner speech also exhibits this characteristic, but even more so the stuff of thought is nothing but psychological predicates (Vygotsky, 1978).One of the primary ways humans learn anything, according to Vygotsky, is through the zone of proximal development. This concept explains that what a person can do today with assistance, they can do tomorrow by themselves (Vygotsky, 1978). Applied to first language acquisition, the child may receive help from an expert, such as their parents, who point at objects and say their name, for example, cat. After adjoining this, the child may repeat cat immediately after. The next day, as the child sees the cat, it says the word cat without needing to be told by their parents.Chomsky maintains that languages consist of an infinite number of sentences and cannot be learned through habit formation. Language is too complex to be learned in such a short amount of time (Chomsky, 1959). He believes that every human is born with an innate language learning capacity, which is implant in the language acquisition device (LAD). Chomsky believes that all language share well-formed structures. This is called universal grammar (UG). proofread of UG includes poverty of stimulus, which explains how children acquire the language despite their limited exposure and incorrect input they may receive.Another evidence for UG that languages are recursive, (Jackendoff, 1994). It is impossible to know all the possible combinations however, they are learned by children. gibe to UG, there must be some sort of innate capacity that provides the additional information. The fact that children are resistant to correction once again proves that language is developed through an innate capacity. According to Chomsky (1959), all languages share principles, which are invariable across languages. For example, noun phrases and verb phrases. This is called structure dependency.All languages have verbs and nouns. What distinguishes language s from each other according to Chomsky, are parameters, which are language specific. For example, some languages are head first, and some are head last. In relation to UG, Eric Lenneberg (1967) introduced the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH), which is a window of language learning opportunity before puberty. Proponents of CPH believe after this period, language learning becomes a much more difficult task and adults tend to rely on other mechanisms such as bother solving skills, reasoning, and deductive instruction to learn a language.Evidence of the CP is for example abused children, who despite being removed from the environment where they were deprived of social contact, were not able to learn the language. There have been many criticisms to Chomskys UG, for example, the LAD cannot be set(p) and is immeasurable. Also, Chomskys theories overlook the effects of social contact and the environment on language learning. Social interactionist Vygotsky (1978) was a strong proponent of t he social interaction hypothesis. He believed that learning takes place through social interaction, and give and take of information with caregivers, parents, or peers. According toVygotsky, children begin with external speech, which could consist of one word only, but have the meaning of a whole sentence. Gradually, as the child grows older, he develops more complex and hourlong sentences and associates more meaning with his words. A child also engages in private speech (similar to adults), which is usually meant for problem solving or thinking out loud, but is not meant for sharing although articulated. Vygotsky believes that as the child develops more linguistic skills, this private speech becomes internalized and turns into inner speech, which is pure meaning, and does not consist of subjects it is predicated.In direct face-off to the environment being the active participant in language learning, Chomsky flips behaviorism on its head and presents the learner as having a primar y role while environment becomes secondary. Within the Universal Grammar Theory (UG), Noam Chomsky (1959) presents a Language Acquisition Device (LAD) that is responsible for the language learning process. Purely biological, language is filtered through the innate LAD that is structured with principles that are unchanging and parameters that vary according to the language being learned.Proofs to support this theory are many. Syntax and the head-first/head-last parameter are two such proofs. As a child learns language, they hold to one of only two possibilities in any given language head-first and head-last and language is formed through recursion and syntactic movement that follow a pattern within a particular language. This shows that language is lawful and that the LAD is programmed with language foundations from which a child can develop. That children are resistant to correction follows this same thought as they develop language through the LAD. Language is not linked to inte lligence as we see in brain damaged adults who are completely coherent in language skills and others who are cognitively normal but cannot speak correctly. Stroke victims also show that, depending on the area of the brain that is affected, intelligence and speech are not linked. Brocas and Wernickes Aphasias show that certain areas of the brain affect speech while intelligence remains unaffected. As evidenced by the Gopnik family, genetic impairments have also proven that a glitch in the UG can be passed down from one generation to another, thus proving that the LAD is indeed biological (Jackendoff, 113).Eric Lennebergs Critical Period Hypothesis (1967) and the cases of wild children are yet tho evidence. Lenneberg holds that the LAD becomes dormant or ineffective after a certain age around the age of 12 and this is why children acquire language so much more quickly than adults who are attempting the same. through these studies of particular children who did not learn language a nd who were void of contact with language as a whole, it shows that the jr. the child, the more fully they were able to learn language. Once a child was passed the age of 12 or so, they were unable to acquire proper language skills.The younger children were not only able to learn more adequately but then went on to continue in the language learning process as a normal adult would. As many proofs as there are for Chomskys UG and the LAD, criticisms are plentiful as well. First and foremost, where is the evidence that a device like LAD exists? It certainly has not been located in the brain, therefore, it remains immeasurable and some have serious doubt as to its legitimacy. This theory also limits the role of the environment and gives no account for the social context of the language learning process.It idealizes the vocalizer and the grammar itself to a certain degree and packages the entire process a bit too neatly. Cognitive suppuration Theory Jean Piagets (1955) work in cognitiv e development is foundational on many levels. watch his own children, nature, and certain study groups of young children, Piaget introduces a theory that is completely developmental. As a child is work and developed (both biologically and cognitively), they are able to assimilate, accommodate and adapt new experiences. Underlying in this theory is reasoning and logic.The role of the environment is minimal and the learner is vital but only as they are cognitively developed and ready for new experiences. A child will not learn what they are not cognitively developed to receive at that point no matter what the instruction. Piaget holds to the image of children developing schema. As a new experience is received and they are biologically and cognitively ready to receive it, they will develop new schema to fit into the framework of schema that they already have developed. This theory also relies heavily on egocentric and socialized speech with each one do a different function.Egocentr ic speech is what is used (mainly by children) when words and thoughts are spoken out loud but the one speaking is only dealing with their own thoughts and ideas. Socialized speech is a shift away from egocentric speech where one simply derives pleasure from speaking to being a way of exchanging their ideas or opinions. Although Piagets work and theory is critical, it neither accounts for the childs behavior as a whole nor for the cognitive development after the stage of formal operation is reached. It offers vast cortical potential into the developmental process of a child but little instruction on attaining language skills.It was also based solely on a Western model and is therefore quite limiting. SECOND spoken language ACQUISITION Input Output Hypotheses As a result of older models of language teaching where attendance was given to language grammar, Krashen (1981) places his focus on communication input. He contends that if the learner is given a fate to absorb the language , they will be better equipped to acquire it. Rather than forcing output immediately, Krashen holds to a unfathomed period where learners have the privilege of just listening to language before attempting itmuch like a young child would in learning their mother tongue.Comprehensible input (i + 1) is the formula that Krashen holds to for optimal language learning for second language learners (SLLs). This states that if a SLL is offered input that is only slightly beyond what they already know, acquisition will take place. He also makes a differentiation between language learning and language acquisition, claiming that acquisition is what is needed for the language learning process. Criticisms of Krashens hypothesis are that input alone cannot account for acquisition and that some grammatical forms cannot be learned without being taught.Swain (1985) introduces her Output Hypothesis in contrast to Krashen and claims that no matter the input, if the output is unintelligible, acquisitio n has not truly occurred. It is the output that forces learners to grapple with the grammatical processing and figure out what works. Through output, a learner can realize their problem areas, can experiment with new areas they are unsure of, and gives them the chance to analyze problems they are having in their language learning process.